Miller The sample size required to detect statistically significant sex differences (interactions by sex) is considerably larger than that required to detect the main effects of treatment or sex alone. However, a few investigators have attempted to design exposures that mimic human gendered experiences. MM Now study tables 3C and 3D in the book and answer the following questions: A. Sulke Gender differences in subject choice leads to gender pay gap immediately after graduation, Dont cheer end of earnings squeeze: there is more pain to come, Government spending has long been targeted at the poorest in our society, Mixing with better educated families improves life chances of lower income children, Teacher recruitment, training and retention: submission to the Education Select Committee, Public service spending has become significantly more progressive since the 1980s, Labour market inequality and the changing life cycle profile of male and female wages, First generation elite: the role of school networks, Heterogeneity of consumption responses to income shocks in the presence of nonlinear persistence. We address issues of motivation, subject selection, sample size, data collection, analysis, and interpretation, considering implications for basic, clinical, and population research. Full article: Boys' and girls' educational choices in secondary 3) . ,Parthasarathy C,Anitha M,Balasubramanian K. Gayathri There are some exceptions for example, medicine and law both have average or slightly above average shares of female students and very high returns. ,Gass M,Hall JE,Lobo R,Maki P,Rebar RW,Sherman S,Sluss PM,de Villiers TJ;STRAW + 10 Collaborative Group. pipeline than male students. A recent analysis of sex differences presented in Cochrane reviews of clinical trials suggested that few met the stringent criteria of documenting statistically significant interactions by sex (127); this criticism of sex differences research is cautionary. This paper shows differences in social capital are a key driver of the high intergenerational persistence in elite education. The prevalence of gun ownership, for example, has been proposed (84). Charles and Bradley, 2002; Jonsson, 1999; for a recent review, see Wang and Degol, 2017). JO VanderWeele T. Tools and tutorials. This is particularly true in a scientific climate that encourages, or even mandates, subgroup analysis. More recently, a sexually dimorphic population of kisspeptin neurons was identified that is present in higher numbers in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus in prepubertal females than in males, to which the sexually dimorphic preovulatory luteinizing hormone surge that occurs in adult females but not males is attributed (48). The dynamics of drugs may vary, too:-blockers, opioids, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and several antipsychotic drugs may attain higher blood levels and/or have different efficacy in women (2,23). Source: J. Britton, L. Dearden, L. van der Erve and B. Waltmann, The impact of undergraduate degrees on lifetime earnings, Institute for Fiscal Studies, 2020, https://www.ifs.org.uk/publications/14729Notes: Female shares were obtained by mapping gender shares in principal subjects for full-time students studying for standard undergraduate degrees from published HESA data to CAH2 subject groups. ,Seeley RJ,Clegg DJ. MacLaughlin The gender of teachers may shape gender differences in subject choice. Implementing rigor and transparency in NIH & AHRQ research grant applications. RW ,Fraser A,Lawlor DA,Catov JM. MJ For example, investigators found that the serum concentrations of 68% of 171 serum biomarkers associated with chronic disease were affected by sex, oral contraceptive use, menstrual phase, or menopausal status (116). It is more reasonable to request that investigators specify the sex of a cell line used in a study (i.e., derived from a male vs female, or XX vs XY in sex chromosome complement), as the sex of many cell lines has been established (70). For example, sex and gender are two of many factors that determine body size and composition. There is a gender divide based on the subjects taught by men. Drawing from extensive questionnaires completed by their study participants, the researchers identified a set of seven variables (including income, hours doing housework, and scores on a sex role inventory survey) that resulted in a continuous gender score ranging from masculine to feminine characteristics. Miller Including or excluding participants using hormonal therapies, such as contraceptives and female and male hormone replacement or suppression therapies, is another potentially important design choice. ,Lancaster K,Klibanski A,Whitfield-Gabrieli S,Cherkerzian S,Buka S,Goldstein JM. Boys choosing girls subjects can be accused of being gay, and vice versa for girls, and this may steer them away from subjects which dont fit in with their gender domains. ,Saxena AR,Isganaitis E,James-Todd T. Rengarajan Most importantly, surprise subgroup findings need to be acknowledged as such. ,Dhanya CR,Indu AR,Kurup PA. Stahlhut There are multiple types of estrogens produced by the ovaries and other tissues, as well as multiple androgens beyond testosterone. Independent of sex, a high gender score (more feminine characteristics) was associated with increased risk of diabetes, hypertension, and depression and anxiety symptoms (85). Sharaf ,Filardo EJ,Lolait SJ,Thomas P,Maggiolini M,Prossnitz ER. ,Pike A,Andersson S,Matthews J,Cheng G,Hartman J,Tujague M,Strm A,Treuter E,Warner M,Gustafsson JA. Looker JM (87) developed an animal model (sexual conspecific aggressive response, or SCAR) to examine the effects of sexual aggression on the brain and learned behaviors. Understanding gender differences in STEM: Evidence from college Accessed 17 April 2017. ,Bassuk SS,Lee IM,Cook NR,Albert MA,Gordon D,Zaharris E,Macfadyen JG,Danielson E,Lin J,Zhang SM,Buring JE. Phillips Outline the main reasons for gender differences in Defining gender in human studies is both difficult and controversial.. Assmann Results were broadly robust to using the coefficients for either men or women as reference coefficients instead. Living standards, poverty and inequality in the UK: 2023, Communications, finance and administration, Centre for the Microeconomic Analysis of Public Policy, Living standards, poverty and inequality in the UK, https://www.ifs.org.uk/publications/14729, https://www.ifs.org.uk/publications/15383, https://ifs.org.uk/articles/gender-differences-subject-choice-leads-gender-pay-gap-immediately-after-graduation. For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. Figure 1. Increasingly also more females enrolled on Advanced Level courses, and they began by the 1990s to outperform males in the Advanced Level examinations. MA In other words, investigators can make available sex-stratified data to spur the generation of new hypotheses, without presenting sex-stratified analyses that overreach the intent and design of their original study. In this model, the testis-determining geneSry is deleted from the Y chromosome and inserted onto an autosome. 7 Ridgmount Street Archived biospecimens should include information about such variables (e.g., time of blood draw, day of menstrual cycle). Returns were estimated using a regression model that controls for attainment at Key Stage 2, 4 and 5; Key Stage 5 subject; and other background characteristics such as socio-economic group, region, and ethnicity. Gendered subject images Science = boys subject because.. Science teachers are likely to be men. Recently in the news is the sleeping medication zolpidem (the active ingredient in Ambien), which lingers in the bloodstream for hours longer in women than men given the same dose (99). NS ,Sdersten P. McCarthy Accessed 5 April 2018. For example, as noted above, estradiol is critical to the regulation of energy balance and body weight. By age 30 before most graduates start having children the gender pay gap in annual earnings stands at 25%. At the least, they provide a rationale for larger studies powered to detect sex interactions, or incentivize data collection across studies for meta-analyses of interactions by sex (15). At the very least, it will allow readers of the scientific literature to critically assess the validity of what they read. Implementing rigor and transparency in NIH & AHRQ career development award applications. McDevitt As menstrual cycles may be suppressed or dictated by hormonal contraceptives (including hormonal intrauterine devices), or breastfeeding, it is useful to record these variables when assessing menstrual timing. LR Norman (1988) -> early socialisation. ,Vanderweele TJ. ,Johnson AE,Wenke JC,Bosse MJ,Ficke JR. Chokshi . Consider the impact of gendered social environment for the distribution of factors that may interact with the main exposure. In this manner, XX and XY mice with the same type of gonad can be compared to assess phenotypic effects of the sex chromosome complement in cells and tissues (12,67). A womans history of preeclampsia might modify the impact of an antihypertensive drug. This is particularly true of secondary data analyses of studies never designed to examine subgroup differences. Does diabetes predict CVD among females?) ,Snijder MB,Dekker JM,Stehouwer CD,Bouter LM,Heine RJ,Lips P. Kautzky-Willer For example, cyclical patterns of DNA synthesis and rates of cell division and death would not have been discovered if females in different cycle phases had not been studied (42,43). In any subgroup analysis, including sex and gender, tests of interaction should be limited and prespecified in statistical analytic plans (129). This, of course, leads to a literature of contradictions. EG Beyond simply studying both male and female animals as they age naturally, studies can include classic gonadectomy with or without hormone replacement: prenatally and perinatally to address developmental effects; in juvenile animals to study postnatal developmental and differentiation effects; in adults to assess the effects of sex steroid hormones at the time of testing; and in aging animals to study effects of sex steroids in models of aging. AN Rather than assume ubiquitous sex and gender differences in biology, health, and disease, we propose methods and interpretation that will increase the likelihood of detecting true differences where they exist. 6 marker -Outline three ways in which factors within schools Stratified randomization can accommodate a study plan with unequal numbers of male and female subjects, especially helpful when men and women join a study at different rates or in different time periods. G Afifi This is critical given that timing is everything when it comes to identifying developmental sex effects (14,21,22). In post-16 Education - despite the greater level of choice - boys opt for subjects like physics and maths, whilst girls opt for Art and MfL etc. Some alternative models of menopause or ovarian failure include Foxl2-deficient mice with accelerated rates of decline in ovarian reserve (63). All these affect the way the students are represented by teachers or other members. Ioannidis The first reason is gendered differences in early socialisation. Here, careful data collection bears fruit. Similarly, boys being steered towards toy tools and trucks may result in a higher proportion of them choosing to study engineering at university. When the company data are published and there is debate on what firms should do, it is important to remember that the seeds of the gender pay gap are sown early. Verbal abuse is one way these peer groups reinforce dominant gender identities. ,MacMillan HL,Boyle M,Taillieu T,Cheung K,Sareen J. Diaz Brinton There is sex bias down to the level of epigenetic marking and gene expression (28). Winston CIOT/IFS debate: Where next for income tax? Previous research explaining gender differences in choice of subject or field of study has mainly focused on micro-processes such as gender-specific cognitive ability, self-efficacy in different subject domains, gender role socialization, and gender beliefs and stereotypes (e.g. Phthalate exposures have been associated with insulin receptor and glucose oxidation in the Chang liver cell line (unspecified sex) (112), signs of diabetes and endocrine disruption in female rats (113), and with insulin resistance and diabetes in men and women (111,114,115). NH It is very difficult to pinpoint one main causal variable for gendered differences in subject choice, the reasons are due to a multitude of factors. Investigate intermediate pathway variables to understand apparent sex differences. Examples in textbooks use boys interests. Researchers will be collecting and analyzing data by sex, but the onus is on investigators to address this adequately and at all levels of basic, clinical, and population research.. Gender Differences in Educational Achievement & Subject Choice Patterns and Trends in Achievement On starting School: In 2013, teacher assessments of pupils at the end of year one showed girls ahead of boys by between 7-17 percentage points in all 7 areas of learning assessed. Women's aversion to majors that (seemingly) require systemizing skills Such subgroup analyses of main effects stratified by sex are often underpowered, which heightens the risk of type II error, or false-negative results. . Other violent exposures, such as combat casualties and war-time trauma, also have gendered distributions and implications (90,91). SA Consider whether sex of cell lines is known, relevant, and generalizable. Power VM The very concept of gender is subtle, complex, and shifting. Historical reliance on male animal models (e.g., mice, rats) has resulted in incomplete data to guide human subject research in both men and women. The earnings gap was decomposed using a two-fold Kitagawa-Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition (Kitagawa, 1955; Oaxaca, 1973; Blinder, 1973). Age 30 earnings data was taken from 2016/17 tax records. Although this does not guarantee that tests of hypotheses will be well constructed, it does help to protect againstpost hoc fishing and data-derived hypothesis testing (themselves self-fulfilling prophecies). Methylation patterns also differ between the sexes, likely influencing DNA expression over the life course (38,39). ,Wenger NK,Taylor D,Rich-Edwards JW,Steiner M,Shaw LJ,Berga SL,Miller VM,Merz NB. C Read carefully to consider likelihood of false-positives (especially in context of multiple testing) and false-negatives (especially where statistical power is low). L Busque ,Whitely E,Egger M,Smith GD,Mulheran PA,Peters TJ. . Kernan Mosca This linked to hegemonic (dominant ideas about) masculinity stereotypically, real men are good at sport, and so boys are under pressure play sport to fit into their male peer group, this doesnt apply to girls and could explain why more boys do PE later in their school careers. Truly sex-informed research is more than just stratifying by sex or gender. Reasons for Gender Differences in Subject Choice - Term Paper Barrett Chen The risk of a blanket mandate to require all studies to stratify all results by sex is that the literature-wide type I error, that is, the risk of detecting false sex differences, will skyrocket. AP .Statistical aspects of cancer trials. Consider recording data on reproductive cycle (follicular/luteal), and stage (prepuberty, puberty, pregnancy, lactation, premenopause and postmenopause). Although stratifying data by sex to examine the exposuredisease association separately for males and females allows the investigator to eyeball effect modification by sex, such estimation gives no indication of the extent to which any observed sex differences are due to chance. ,Meyer HE,Haug E,Brunvand L. Calvo Kelly argues that science is seen as a 'boy subject' because boys monopolise the apparatus during . Such data may serve as preliminary analyses for future studies adequately powered to detect sex differences and may be used in meta-analyses. TJ By ages 85 to 94, male CHD rates are only 10% higher than those of females (20). Blanco ,McClusky R,Chen J,Beaven SW,Tontonoz P,Arnold AP,Reue K. Li Figure 2. Psychol. Changes in the composition of spending and rising education participation mean public service spending is more progressive than in the 1980s & 1990s. This may be related to a modulating impact of testosterone on CYP3A4 activity, the principal enzyme responsible for zolpidem metabolism; lower levels of free testosterone may explain the slower clearance and higher plasma concentrations of zolpidem in women and elderly men (100,101). Ritz These prepubertal sex differences have been largely attributed to the effects of prenatal and perinatal activity of the hypothalamicpituitarygonadal axis and resultant sex steroid hormone production and actions. ,Holsen L,Handa R,Tobet S. Johnson peer group pressure (1 mark); leads to girls and boys choosing such as girls health and social boys sports/ physics subjects which reflect stereotypical gender identities (+1 mark) ,Arnold AP,Berkley KJ,Blaustein JD,Eckel LA,Hampson E,Herman JP,Marts S,Sadee W,Steiner M,Taylor J,Young E. Ouyang the gender differences in specialization choice, consider that 76 . However, Postmodernists would say that these stereotypes are breaking down, and that gender stereotypes in socialisation are much less common than in the past, hence why we are seeing more gender diversity in subject choice today. For example, in the nonobese diabetic mouse, diabetes is more prevalent in females, so that more male mice must be included to yield the same number of affected animals of each sex (30). Anderson Explains why girls choose humanities and arts and boys choose sciences. In school factors such as the gender of the teachers teaching certain subjects and gender stereotypes held by teachers. Rather, a method for defining gender within a study population is a better approach to measure gender. Some of these sex-dependent covariates are obvious, such as parity. ,Lusis AJ. Note that these dimensions are independent of sexual orientation. For example, the Vitamin D and Omega-3 Trial study of dietary supplements to reduce heart disease, stroke, and cancer includes women aged 55 or older and men aged 50 or older to account for the later onset of disease in women (29). NP In particular, we focus on methods to test sex/gender differences as effect modification or interaction, and discuss why some inferences from sex-stratified data should be viewed with caution. The study found that when there were female role models, it raised students' interest in science-related careers, and it sharply reduced the prevalence of stereotypes associated with jobs in science and gender differences in abilities (Breda et Mature and part-time students were dropped from the sample, as were people with earnings of less than 1,000 in the tax year. Abkowitz Jazin SD JL Statistical methods can help segregate or decompose the impact of such intermediate variables, also known as mediators (136,137). ,Daly AF,Beckers A. Klibanski Marks Level descriptors 25-30 Answers in this band will show sound, conceptually detailed knowledge of a Gender differences in subject choice may be explained in general terms by the following interconnected factors: Gender differences in socialisation operating via the family, the school, the peer group, the local community, and the mass media. Briefly, typical methods to reduce the likelihood that an exposureoutcome association is confounded by a third variable include: adding to the basic exposureoutcome model additional independent covariates that represent the potential confounder (e.g., a term to represent number of cigarettes per day or a set of terms to indicate nonsmokers, past smokers, and present smokers); matching on the potential confounder using careful participant selection and conditional modeling (e.g., smokers can be compared only with other smokers, and nonsmokers with other nonsmokers); or conditioning on a propensity score that estimates from a set of covariates the likelihood that an individual was exposed, thus reducing or eliminating the unwanted impact of those covariates on the estimated exposureoutcome association (131). Investigators seeking to construct a sex- and gender-informed framework for their research may be disappointed by a lack of systematic evidence regarding sex and gender differences in the literature. In addition to the multiple ERs, tissue-specific responses to estrogens can occur through the presence of modulating proteins such as coactivators and corepressors, among others. Furthermore, there is target tissue specificity in the actions of estrogens, which can be attributed to tissue-specific expression patterns of estrogen receptors (ERs), including ER, ER, and estrogen membrane receptors such as membrane ER and the G proteincoupled receptor GPER1/GPR30 (51,52). In mammals, puberty involves sex-specific, but variable, changes in central neural systems, gonadal steroid production, and the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics, including behaviors. ,Weiss BK,Makris N,Whitfield-Gabrieli S,Buka SL,Klibanski A,Goldstein JM. For example, there are sex differences in the length of telomeres, noncoding DNA sequences that cap and protect chromosomes, the length of which are correlated with longevity. Understanding of the roles of neurokinin B and kisspeptin in reproduction has been facilitated by studying male and female animals at varying reproductive stages, with and without gonadectomy (45). Gender and subject choice. Hilger The use of exogenous hormones, such as oral contraceptives, menopausal hormone therapy, testosterone, and anabolic steroids, is particularly important to document. There are also compromises between large scientific goals and restricted available funds. ST Exposure to phthalates may depend on occupation and use of personal care products; higher urine concentrations of phthalate metabolites have been reported among women compared with men (110,111). Both sex (the biological attributes of females and males) and gender (socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities in a spectrum, including femininity and masculinity) affect molecular and cellular processes, clinical traits, response to treatments, health, and disease (1). Her ability to learn, including to learn maternal caring behavior, was suppressed. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. ,Karas RH. Search for other works by this author on: Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, Consideration of sex differences in medicine to improve health care and patient outcomes, Fetal hormonal programming of sex differences in depression: linking womens mental health with sex differences in the brain across the lifespan. This material has been written primarily for students studying the education option as part of their A-level in sociology. To plan a study with adequate statistical power to detect main effects by sex is straightforward: simply calculate sample sizes needed to detect main effects in men and women separately (and add them up), taking into account sex differences in rates of disease, expected size of impact of exposure, and, for observational studies, expected prevalence of exposure.
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gender differences in subject choice
